Why Does the Us Continue to Be a Target for Terrorism

1Throughout written history, there are accounts of individuals who have targeted the death or maiming of civilians to achieve political means (Bloom, 2005). Recently, suicide attacks have been put to use with alarming frequency and profound effects. The tactic has been employed by many different religious and nationalist groups spanning the globe. However, these instances encompass a huge amount of circumstances over time and space and are beyond the scope of this paper. According to Bloom (2005), "the 1983 attacks in Lebanon against the American Marine Barracks signaled the beginning of the modern use of suicide terror." (p. 1). Merari (2007) has constructed a chart of suicide attacks since the 1980s and has shown that the numbers are exponentially rising. Since the 1980s, suicide bombings have been employed throughout the world, but especially in the Middle East (Bloom, 2005). These perpetrators of terrorism have also targeted United States and European targets causing mass chaos and fear. Although groups such as the IRA, Tamil Tigers, and other groups and individuals have perpetrated acts of terrorism, this paper focuses on the press releases of Islamic groups that explicitly target United States and European interests. It is unclear whether the roots of terrorism are the same on each side of the Atlantic. Political leaders have united against these criminal acts, but these attacks are not necessarily of the same nature. Although Islamic terrorism in the United States and Europe has been discussed as a unique phenomenon, it is asserted that there are convergent motivations between these subgroups. While many explanations have been developed to explain these attacks, there appears to be disagreement between the claims of researchers and the ones made by those responsible for these attacks. Many of these explanations demonstrate considerable weaknesses and often fall prey to bias and inaccurate heuristics. An analysis of the content presented in speeches by al-Qaeda leadership and actors responsible for these acts has been conducted to shed light on the motivations that these terrorists have explicitly stated. These findings are compared to the statements presented by American and European leaders regarding the terrorists' motivations and impacts on policy are discussed. This study has been undertaken with the goal of identifying similarities and differences in terrorist attitudes towards their targets and evaluating the theories of terrorism presented by various sources.

A brief history of terrorist attacks in the United States and Europe

2Many Americans first became aware of the threat of Islamic terrorism as a result of the attacks of September 11, 2001. This menace was in stark contrast to previous acts of terrorism conducted in the U.S. by individuals who could be disregarded as psychopathic such as Ted Kaczynski and Timothy McVeigh. Millions of Americans repeatedly watched the planes crash into the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The threat of similar Islamic terrorism has also manifested in Europe with the London and Madrid bombings as well as other events and threats. However, Europeans had been exposed to modern terrorism well before these events. The Irish Republican Army had posed a threat to England and Ireland for decades and many civilian lives had been lost. In Spain, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) has been active since 1959 (Dabrowski, 1997). Germans have been exposed to the actions of the Red Army Faction for over 30 years. Similarly the Red Brigades were a terrorist organization that was primarily active in Italy. These groups have operated on nationalist and separatist motives and were opposed primarily by law enforcement rather than military organizations. For the most part, their intents were understood and society had a clear understanding of their reasoning. The current phenomenon of Islamic terrorism has been attributed to many factors and the enemy is substantially different than domestic terrorists.

3Osama bin Laden's terrorist organization, al-Qaeda, has become known worldwide, but there is little consensus on their mission. Politicians, news organizations, and social scientists have argued that the Islamic terrorists are religious zealots seeking a holy war, that they hate us for our freedom, and that they are psychotic sociopaths that are recklessly determined to see the destruction of western society. It is agreed that they pose a real threat to westerners, and are responsible for significant death and destruction. The events of September 11, 2001 were executed by 19 hijackers who took the lives of 2,973 people (Alfano, 2006). Although planes crashed in New York, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C., reactions were expressed around the United States and the rest of the world. Americans united in solidarity and the enemy was portrayed as inhuman and evil. Sentiments have evolved in the time since these attacks, but our experiences and understanding have been influenced by the initial presentation.

4Madrid, Spain was stunned by a series of bombs in the train system on March 11, 2004. Almost 200 people lost their lives and an additional 1,800 were injured (CNN, 2008). Initial blame targeted ETA, but the following investigation identified the perpetrators as an Islamic terrorist group influenced by Al-Qaeda that received praise from that organization. The attacks influenced the election that took place only three days later and spread fear throughout the western world. The European Union called an emergency meeting fearing future attacks from Al-Qaeda or similar organizations.

5During morning rush hour on July 7, 2005, a series of bombs exploded on London's buses and underground. Fifty-two deaths resulted, and more than 700 were injured as a result of these suicide bombings (BBC, 2005). Al-Qaeda and linked groups claimed responsibility for these attacks and issued more threats to those who are viewed as enemies of the jihadists. Debate concerning the causes of these attacks ensued and some commentators argued that British involvement in Iraq was to blame, while others viewed these acts as reason for increased intervention.
To date, the threat of terror remains a constant, and Americans and others throughout the world fear possible attacks. Citizens have reacted with both positive and negative reactions. Along with solidarity and respect, stereotyping and bigotry have also been reported as a result of these attacks. Increased vigilance is outwardly present and intrusive security measures have been accepted. The political and economic machines of these countries have been altered and the effects are felt in daily life. It is impossible to determine how many other attacks have been averted or thwarted by law enforcement and regular threats are made against western interests. France, Germany, and Denmark have each claimed to foil attacks by Islamic terrorist cells intent on wreaking havoc in their countries (McNamara, 2007).

Perceived motivations

6The public has received mixed messages regarding the causes of terrorism. Information from media and political leaders is laced with political agenda and inconsistency. While these messages are intended to aid the public in understanding the current predicament, the conflicting information leads to confusion and chaos. Fear has been the result, as many contend is the intention of the terrorists, including al-Qaeda. Unraveling the presented problem should lead to a better understanding of these organization's and individuals' true motivations, the inaccuracies of coverage, and a direction for future formulation.

Messages from politicians

7At the onset of Operation Enduring Freedom, the war in Afghanistan, President Bush indicated that, "we defend not only our precious freedoms, but the freedom of people everywhere to live and raise their children." (Washington Post, 2001). This quote is consistent with later statements that indicate that, "they hate us for our freedom." (Washington Post, 2001). President Bush also stated that, "the message of the al Qaeda organization is one of evil and hate." (US Embassy, 2001). Drawing these lines suggests that there can be no resolution and the destruction of one side is the only option. Additionally, such statements dehumanize the enemy and prevent a desire to truly understand their justifications. No evidence has been presented to support this claim and the words of the terrorists have not been publicly critiqued.

8British Prime Minister Tony Blair, offered economic explanations for terrorism and reactions to it (Guardian, 2001). He indicated that, "our prosperity and standard of living require us to deal with the terrorist threat." Blair also attempts to remove the religious aspect of Bin Laden's network by describing anger felt by Muslims and others alike when they are described as Islamic terrorists, instead, "they are terrorists pure and simple." Following the Madrid bombings, Spanish Prime Minister Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero stated that, "there is no sense to terrorism, there is no policy in terrorism. There is just terror, death, blackmail." (CNN, 2004). Sentiments such as these continue the assertion that the al-Qaeda are a group that cannot be dealt with and that there is no grievance or intention in their targets, only malice. Zapatero's predecessor, Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar had taken a stance that the causes are moot and that, "it is a fight that we are all involved in, no matter where we come from and regardless of the origins of terrorism." (UN, 2001). However, he did recognize the target of the west's freedom stating, "We want to continue to live in free, democratic, open, tolerant societies." (UN, 2001).

9In France, Prime Minister Dominique De Villepin was a strong critic of the war on terror and along with President Jacques Chirac opposed the war in Iraq (CNN, 2004). Villepin stated that, "the terrorists want to lead us to a head-on clash of religions and cultures from which we will all emerge battered and broken." He also warned that there is, "no possible peace with the terrorist…but we will not stop terrorism solely through force." This analysis is perhaps the most logical of evaluations by politicians. It identifies the complexity and uniqueness of the al-Qaeda threat.
A sense of unity has also been presented. In this polarizing environment, Europeans and Americans have viewed attacks on one another being equal and that they are targeted for the same reasons. The leaders of the United States have repeatedly mentioned coalition forces in its activities overseas. Spain's Aznar has pronounced "solidarity with the United States." (CNN, 2001). French President Jacques Chirac indicated that, "when it comes to punishing this murderous folly, France will be at the side of the United States." (CNN, 2001). Another European seeking transatlantic unity, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said, "The war on terror remains the greatest challenge facing the international community, one that targets our entire system of values." (Der Spiegel, 2005). Perhaps most telling of the belief in interchangeable motives for attacks on American or European lands is Tony Blair's declaration that, "People know that what happened was not just aimed at America, it was aimed at all of us." (Guardian, 2001). Blair went on to say, "I think that support will be there not just because of people's sense of horror and outrage at what has happened but also because of their realization that unless we take action we are all at risk. So it is right for reasons of justice but it is also right for reasons of self-protection." (Guardian, 2001).

Media coverage

10While much has been written about the media spreading the fear that empowers terrorism, the actual dialogue about the Islamic terrorists and their motivations is less abundant. Shurkin (2006) postulated that the media "are part of the reason these incidents occur in the first place." News organizations are stuck between reporting the news as it occurs and giving terrorists the attention they crave. The disproportional fear created by terrorist attacks maximizes their effectiveness and encourages violent and unbelievable behavior (Breckenridge and Zimbardo, 2006). Rothschild (2001) examined the statistical odds of death by means of terrorism compared to disease and automobile accident and it is clear that our fears are misguided. Breckenridge and Zimbardo (2006) indicated that the cause for this irrational fear is the result of bias, heuristics, and social amplification. The information we are receiving from the media maximizes our reactivity, but what are they really telling us?

11After September 11^th, the public was swamped with opinions and editorials concerning the terrorist attacks that were heard around the world. News sources across America attempted to explain the events that had transpired and profile the terrorists who carried out these attacks. David Ruppe (2001) of ABC news indicated that Bin Laden and his network may be motivated by to resentment due to perceived American abandonment following the Afghan-Soviet war, which had already fueled anti-western attitudes. Ruppe (2001) also indicated that this war had created an "unfilled power vacuum" in Afghanistan and Pakistan. CNN (2001) described Bin Laden as an Islamic fundamentalist whose "anger with the United States stems from the 1990 decision by Saudi Arabia to allow the U.S. to stage attacks on Iraqi forces." Along with anger and resentment stemming from America's history in the United States, other factors such as poverty as breeding grounds of terrorism, psychopathology, and pure evil were also presented in newspapers, television, and radio. Desperation has also been a recurring theme in the media coverage of terrorism. Adam Curtis (2005) of the Guardian suggested Bin Laden "turned to attacking the west only because of the failure of the wider movement to achieve its revolutionary aims in the Muslim world." Upon review of the subject, one sees that there is a lack of consensus regarding al-Qaeda and their motivations.

Theories from academia and research

12Some social scientists have attempted to locate mental health disorders that could play a role in a person's decision to commit murder-suicide. The media and the government often portray these people as inherently evil and identify that there is something fundamentally different about them (Atran, 2003). Atran (2003) asserted that the organizational aspect of the terrorists' missions demonstrates that they are not the lone psychopath that is often depicted. He indicates that this belief about our enemy is a result of the fundamental attribution error, which explains how people falsely credit behaviors to personal character traits. It is noted that Milgram's obedience studies shed more light on the roots of suicide terrorism than the theory that they are all suffering from severe mental illness.

13Jerrold Post (2007) echoed the idea that terrorists do not exhibit elevated levels of psychopathology and goes on to claim that there are, "no individual psychological traits that distinguish terrorists from the general population." (p. 4). He also believes that not only is pathology not responsible for terrorism, but that terrorist organizations actively filter mental illness from their ranks. They screen out psychopathology because an individual who is emotionally unstable would put the entire cell at risk and could foil their operations. The same is true for more traditional military forces, but is even more of a necessity due to the limited resources that the terrorists have access to.

14There are two levels at which one can view the motivation of a terrorist attack. The goals of the group and the individual are often interlaced, but can also have different roots. The groups that train and arm the suicide bomber often claim nationalist and religious motivations for their behaviors (Post, 2007). However, the person who actually carries out the attack may have additional reasons for their involvement. Religious convictions, vengeance for the death of a loved one, and exploitation by the group were the three factors identified as motivators for suicide terror at the hands of Palestinians by Kimhi and Even (2004). They put forward findings that many of the terrorists regularly demonstrated deep religiosity and claimed this as their reason. Economic rewards and promises for the afterlife were the primary tools used by groups for exploitation according to the researchers. Finally they identified that many terrorists act to retaliate and avenge friends and family members who have been killed by the opposing forces. Merari (2007) disputed that Palestinian suicide bombers are motivated by revenge and provides data indicating that few attackers had relatives that were killed by the Israelis.

15In a report for the Danish Ministry of Justice, Michael Taarnby (2003) suggested that terrorists fit into two distinct categories based on their motivations. There is one group that is idealistically motivated and another that is personally motivated. Taarnby (2003) found that the two groups are distinct in their drives based on five motivational parameters. The religious, social, cultural, political, and psychological parameters are used to indicate how suicide terrorists are motivated differently to achieve the same end result. He states that the categories are ranked equally and that no parameter takes precedence over another. This view is in stark contrast to media depictions that tend to focus on one, often religious area and present that as the primary motivator. One theme that emerges is that there is little or no differentiation concerning terrorist attacks in America compared to ones in Europe.
In a rare study that has compared the messages from terrorists, Pennebaker and Chung (2008) noted differences between the words of Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri, his second in command. Similar to this study, the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count (LIWC) was utilized for this analysis. The researchers discovered that Bin Laden is the more negative of the two and uses more exclusive words, which indicates cognitive complexity. Additionally, Zawahiri's use of first person pronouns implies insecurity and threat. This research demonstrates the utility of computer programs in analyzing terrorists and their messages. The focus of research on empirical and objective data will serve to develop a better understanding of those being studied, and will aid in developing solutions to mitigate this conflict.

Summary of Review

16There are conflicting reports regarding the motivations of terrorists. The same motivations of Islamic terrorism have been attributed to attacks directed at the United States and Europe. Politicians, news organizations, and researchers have all attempted to unravel the mystery of these deadly attackers. These theories are drawn from a variety of information, but few focus on the actual content of the terrorists' messages. History and the evolution of terrorist groups along with individual factors of the attacker are the primary sources of information regarding the scholarly literature on the subject. Other views, such as assertions of evilness and the clash of civilizations are generalized to an extent that leaves little room for solutions. A need to understand these individuals and groups exists and we should use all available data in this exploration. One source of information that has been underutilized is the public statements and messages from the terrorists themselves. These messages are often addressed to specific targets and populations and indicate the feelings and thoughts of these individuals.

Analysis of Terrorist Messages

Method

17A total of 40 messages were included in the present study (N = 40). Two online databases were used as the primary sampling frame to recover publicized statements from Islamic groups referencing either the United States or European countries. The databases included the Nine/Eleven Finding Answers (NEFA) Foundation and the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI). These online data sources consist of threats, praise of attacks, and martyrdom video transcripts. The statements obtained from both NEFA and MEMRI were selected on the basis of non-proportional quota sampling.

18Specifications with regard to fulfilling a minimal quota were used. The sampling quota was set to include a sample size of 20 messages per referenced group. 40 messages referencing either the United States or Europe were selected from the two online sources on the premise of convenience and time frame. Subsequently, these statements were used to adhere to the minimal quota of 20 messages disseminated between the years of 2001 and 2008 directly reference the United States and Europe. Upon linguistic processing, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was computed to determine the statistical variance existing among the messages referencing the United States and Europe. Alpha level was set to .05 in efforts of accurately detecting a statistical difference in the sample
The Linguistic Inquiry Word Count (LIWC), a computer program that examines the use of language in texts, produces an output file that indicates the frequency of words that belong to specific categories (Pennebaker et al., 2007). This software was used to process and analyze the data in the existing sample. There are 70 dimensions the program analyzes, including use of pronouns, emotion, and content such as religion and money. Pennebaker, et al. (2007) also provide LIWC statistics derived from over 24,000 texts comprised of emotional writing, control writing, science articles, blogs, and talking. These means can be compared to the data obtained for the current study to identify specific dimensions elevated statements pertaining to the United States and Europe.

Linguistic dimensions

19The statements were analyzed across the 70 dimensions included in the 2007 LIWC dictionary. These categories comprise basic levels of processing, as well as specific content areas. The program includes a wide range of analysis. However, this belies a particular interest in dimensions directly relating to explanations for the impetus of violent acts of terror discussed in the aforementioned sections of the study. Consequently, five dimensions are expected to be elevated within the sample to correspond with the explanations provided by the media and political officials' for terrorism. These dimensions include: Religion, Anger, Money, and Achievement. If these categories are accordingly elevated in our sample when compared to the base rates provided by Pennebaker et al. (2007) there will be evidence for the accuracy of the information provided by politicians and news organizations.

Hypotheses

20We hypothesized several differences to be present between messages from terrorists that referenced Americans and Europeans. It was predicted that messages directed at America would be broader in scope and would be based largely on general terms whereas the messages intended for Europeans would be in response to specific matters. It is predicted that this phenomena will be manifested in several ways.

1. The first hypothesis is that the dimension of personal concerns and in particular its subcategories money, achievement, religion, and death would account for a higher percentage of language in the American group. This prediction is based on the perceived influence of America on the Middle East. This influence has its roots in both economic and military policy.
2. Second, it is expected that the European group will demonstrate higher levels of social processes. Social concerns are expected to be elevated in the European sample because of the large Muslim community in that continent. Concerns for friends and family members could play a specific role as opposed to ideological differences across the Atlantic. Additionally, growing Islamic fundamentalism in Europe has been written about by authors such as Bawer (2007).
3. Both groups are expected to show elevated percentages of religion, death, and negative emotion than the groups that have been normed by Pennebaker et al. (2007). This shared characteristic is expected of all Islamic terrorists compared to general writings.
4. Finally, it is predicted that the tense dimensions will differ as the European group will show elevated past and present tense language while the American group will have raised levels of future tense speech. The reasoning for this hypothesis is the shorter history of America regarding the Middle East and the unpopularity of American policies in that region. Present tense is expected of the European sample because of the increased frequency of attacks there, while aspirations to attack America should be identified with references to future tense.

Results

21Statistically significant differences were observed in 24 of the 70 variables measured by LIWC. These variables included: I, Past, Adverb, Conjunctions, Negations, Quantifiers, Numbers, Social Processes, Friends, Positive Emotion, Sadness, Certainty, Inhibition, Inclusive, See, Hear, Biological Processes, Body, Health, Relativity, Space, Time, Leisure, and Money. The first hypothesis predicted Personal concerns would be more prevalent in messages pertaining to the United States. While the variables Work, Achievement, Home, Religion, and Death did not differ significantly between statements directed toward each group, Money and Leisure did.

22Money includes language such as audit, cash, and owe (Pennebaker et. al., 2007). Similarly, language included in the Leisure dimension is comprised of words such as: cook, chat, and movie. While not all dimensions, including Achievement, Religion, and Death differed significantly, messages pertaining to Europe countries and United States varied with regard to personal levels. On average, in the present sample, both Money and Leisure were used at a higher percentage for messages directed toward the United States (Fig. 3).

23Elevated Social Processes in messages pertaining to European countries were also predicted. Social Processes language, in general (mate, talk, they, child), and the Friend (buddy, friends, neighbor) subcategory dimension also varied to a degree of statistical significance. Differences were not observed in additional social subcategories (i.e. Family and Human). As predicted, the subsample referencing Europe contained more social words when compared to their United States counterpart. However, messages from the subsample pertaining to the United States contained a higher percentage of words included in the Friends dimension of LIWC.
Past was observed to be the only tense differing to a degree of statistical significance (Fig. 1). However, as expected, the messages directed toward Europe used a higher percentage of language related to past events when compared to statements regarding the United States. This finding, only partly supports the third hypothesis.

Figure 1

Past, Certainly & Inhibition

Past, Certainly & Inhibition

24Additional differences were observed as well. Although unpredicted, these findings may further lead to inferences about the use of language in the present sample. At a level of significance (p < .05), messages referencing European countries in comparison to the United States, displayed the following types of language: Adverbs, Numbers, Positive Emotions, Sadness, Inclusive, Sight, Biological Processes, and Health Concerns (Fig. 2). Statements pertaining to the United States included language referenced at a statistically higher percentage than statements made toward Europe. The following dimensions were observed to be significantly elevated in messages pertaining to the United States: I, Conjunctions, Negation, Quantifiers, Certainty, Inhibition, Hear, Body, Relativity, Space, and Time.

Figure 2

Biological Processes, Positive Emotion & Sadness

Biological Processes, Positive Emotion & Sadness

Figure 3

Social, Leisure & Money

Social, Leisure & Money

Discussion

25The war on terror is entering its ninth year. Since its inception, it has been argued that this battle has lacked definition and goals (Chuckman, 2001). In order to evaluate our fight and the enemies we face, it is necessary to study the actors and actions that we are pitted against. Understanding their motivations and demands can allow us to develop solutions that will deter them and the violence they perpetrate. Analysis of their texts is one method that allows us to study their worldviews objectively and without observer bias. It has been identified that those targeting Americans and Europeans have different concerns and emphasize various topics. However, some Western leaders have sought to unify and draw similarities between the events in their countries.

26The LIWC analysis showed that the terrorists targeting the Americans are more concerned with personal factors such as money and leisure than the ones that address Europeans. This finding could be due to perceptions that America is more influential of their financial well-being and general happiness. As a result, they may target America for these reasons and seek to change the financial implications of American business abroad. This result indicates that sources who recognize the financial aspect of terrorism may have correctly identified a cause of the extremism. Logically, the United States may be more effective in combating terror by working to address the poverty in the Middle East. On the other hand, the messages directed at Europeans were more likely to reference social processes. Europe's large Middle Eastern population could be a cause of this phenomenon. Terrorists who are motivated by European policy are more likely to be concerned for the interests of others, particularly friends. This use of language implies that on a social level, the terrorists show greater concern and a closer connection to European countries than to the United States. Suggested interventions for Europe would include addressing any perceived discrimination or encouraging acculturation. These acts could mitigate the concerns of those who target European countries and damage the ability of extremist groups to recruit for such missions. We also can learn from the use of tenses in the messages. The terrorists with Europe in mind use more past tense language than their counterparts. The use of tense in this way indicates that the messages directed at Europeans are likely in response to past actions and events to a greater degree than America. It is possible that this variance is a result of a longer history of conflict between the regions, or that the threats to Europe are in response to specific events that occurred in the past as opposed to general principles that do not require the use of past tense. Another interpretation is that America is in more of a position to alter its path as to some extent, the damage is yet to occur.

27Consistent with the decreased mention of social processes, the American sample was more likely to self-reference (i.e., talk about themselves). An increase in first person pronouns may be a result of the terrorists acting more independently than those targeting European interests. Smaller cells or individual actors leave less room for counter-terrorism officials who may be able to track communication more in Europe. This sample also referred to relativity, space, and time more often, which suggests specific timetables mentioned that indicate action, with less influence on motivation. These findings suggest that perhaps the terrorists in the United State are to a larger degree blind actors. Therefore, targeting leadership may be more effective than interventions that address the public and the lower level affiliates. Meanwhile, those addressing their concerns to Europeans were more likely to refer to emotions and biological processes suggesting that they are acting as a result of feelings they are experiencing rather than distant ideology or instruction. It would therefore be wise for Europeans to work to decrease these physical and emotional symptoms by changing policy towards the Muslim minority.
This study demonstrates that differences do exist between the messages received by Americans and Europeans. It would be wise to account for these differences in developing solutions and responses to this threat. The discovery is also in contrast to political and media portrayals that indicate universal motivations that apply to both the eastern and western hemispheres. It is suggested that European policy makers seek to alleviate the physical and emotional concerns that are described by the terrorist on behalf of the Arab population. Likewise, Americans may be more successful in undermining the terrorists' arguments if they can create an environment that alleviates the perceived financial threat presented by the United States. The number of elevated variables also indicates that the roots of terrorism are unique and complex, and not easily summarized in short answers. The messages are the works of people and it is important to exaggerate specific characteristics that dehumanize them. It is essential not to over generalize or stereotype these individuals as that limits the ability to develop an accurate profile.

Limitations

28There are several apparent limitations of this study. There is a risk of sample bias as the messages from terrorists that were available may not be representative of the population in question. The results should not be generalized to terrorism or even Islamic terrorism as a whole because of these confines. Additionally, the authors relied upon the organizations providing the messages for the translation aspect of this study. In doing so, there is potential for interference from these organizations both in translation accuracy and message selection. These messages all originate in Arabic and ideally would be translated and back-translated to ensure accuracy. Also, it is difficult to predict if these messages reflect genuine thoughts and feelings or are merely propaganda. However, even if this is the case, identifying the sources of the propaganda can also be of value. Another potential issue with the sample is its relatively small size, which limits the power to accurately detect statistical differences. The researchers chose messages that were clearly targeting the United States and European countries and excluded a number of terrorist messages that may or may not fit into one of these categories. Conclusions regarding the information presented to the public by politicians and media organizations are also certainly not extensive and may be subject to similar biases. It would be naïve to assume that other views have not been presented or that certain individuals or organizations have not also indicated complex, less generalized responses to the terrorist threat. For these and other reasons, this study is not intended to serve as a sole source of terrorist message analysis. Instead, this information should be viewed as a preliminary examination of the language used by the al-Qaeda organization.

Notes

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  Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine

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